Andrew Solomon

The genetic lottery of antisocial behavior When we witness a child's aggression or a teenager's delinquency, our cultural instinct is to look for a failure in parenting or a lack of moral fiber. However, Dr. Kathryn Paige Harden suggests that we are looking past the most significant variable: the genetic lottery. In her research, Harden highlights that childhood antisocial behavior—actions that persistently violate social norms and the rights of others—possesses a heritability estimate of nearly 80%. This figure places the predisposition for deviance on par with schizophrenia, a condition we readily accept as biological. The presence of "callous-unemotional traits," essentially child-level psychopathy, serves as a high-visibility marker for this genetic influence. These children do not simply break rules; they lack the empathic distress typically seen in other humans when they cause harm. For these individuals, the "Spidey sense" of social guilt is absent. When we realize that some children are born with a neurobiological architecture that is less sensitive to punishment and more attuned to immediate reward, the traditional frames of "good" and "bad" children begin to dissolve into a landscape of biological luck. Evolution of the risk-taking phenotype Humanity has undergone a process of self-domestication. Compared to our closest primate ancestors, we are remarkably cooperative and self-regulated. We have traded big canines and aggressive physiological traits for the ability to forecast consequences and feel the distress of others. Yet, Harden explains that this "puppification" of the species is not absolute. Genetic variation in risk-taking and disinhibition persists because it serves an evolutionary purpose. In a 4 million-person study, Harden and her team identified genes common in individuals who engage in behaviors like smoking, early sexual activity, and problematic alcohol use. These aren't just "bad genes"; they are linked to a reward-seeking element essential for certain societal successes. For instance, teenage delinquency is a significant predictor of becoming a successful entrepreneur among those with sufficient material resources. Society requires a certain level of deviance to push boundaries and innovate. The same genetic variants that, in one environment, lead to a criminal record might, in another, lead to the creation of a billion-dollar company. The difference often lies in the "grist for the evolutionary mill"—the specific way these traits interact with the surrounding environment. The failure of retributive punishment Our current legal system is built on the assumption of uniform agency, yet behavioral genetics reveals this is a fiction. Harden argues for a critical distinction between accountability and punishment. Punishment is the deliberate infliction of suffering as retribution. Accountability is the communal enforcement of rules to ensure safety. In the United States, we have leaned heavily into a retributive model that ignores the biological realities of the individuals being incarcerated. Research on rats and humans alike shows that a minority of the population is "punishment insensitive." While 80% of rats will stop pressing a lever for alcohol if it starts delivering a shock, a minority will actually increase their behavior. In humans, this manifests as a learning disability regarding consequences. When a parent or a judge ratchets up the severity of punishment for an antisocial individual, they are often destroying the only handle they have: the reward of connection. By leaning into harshness, we enter a vicious feedback loop that elicits the exact opposite of the treatment required to alter the behavior. The paradox of the X chromosome While the genetic foundations of antisocial behavior are generally similar across sexes, the X chromosome introduces a unique vulnerability for men. Because men have only one X chromosome, they lack the backup copy that allows women to compensate for rare genetic mutations. Harden cites the famous MAOA gene study, where a rare variant on the X chromosome caused extreme antisocial violence in the men of a single family, while their sisters remained unaffected. This case demonstrates that morality is a biological faculty vulnerable to physical disruption. Changing a single letter in the genome can impair the capacity to resist violent impulses. While most antisocial individuals do not have the MAOA mutation, the existence of such cases suggests that many people currently labeled as "evil" by the courts may have neurobiological explanations for their behavior that science has yet to discover. This shifts the conversation from moral failure to biological impairment, raising uncomfortable questions about the justice of our sentencing practices. Retribution as a neurobiological reward One of the most profound insights Harden offers is the explanation for why we enjoy punishing others. Retribution is an evolved cooperation enforcement mechanism. When we see a wrongdoer suffer, our brains release dopamine in the ventral striatum. This pleasure in others' pain was historically necessary to maintain social norms, but in the modern era, it has become the "empty calories" of our moral culture. We frequently alchemize the pain of empathy into the pleasure of judgment by convincing ourselves that a victim deserved their fate because they were an "essentially bad" person. This "genetic essentialism"—the belief that genes are a person's true, unchangeable self—makes us more retributive. If we believe someone is "bad to the bone," we are more likely to recommend longer prison sentences. Harden warns that we must learn to recognize this instinct and refuse to let it lead our social policy. True humanity lies in acknowledging that even those who commit heinous acts are products of a developmental process they did not choose. Navigating the ethics of embryo selection As our ability to read the genome increases, so does the temptation to control it. Harden views Embryo Selection through a lens of extreme caution. While she supports reproductive autonomy, she expresses concern about how turning chance into choice changes the nature of the social contract. If we begin to view certain conditions as "preventable" through technology, we risk eroding the solidarity we feel toward those born with disabilities or challenges. Furthermore, the "dictator's thought experiment" reveals the danger of selecting for a uniform society. If we bred out all risk-taking and antisocial genes, we would create a world of highly controlled, inhibited individuals—a puritanical society devoid of the deviants who drive progress. Harden emphasizes that we must meet people as they are, rather than treating them as projects to be perfected. Motherhood, and indeed citizenship, requires an acceptance of the luck of the draw. Conclusion The future of behavioral genetics is not a path toward determinism, but toward radical compassion. By understanding that no one chooses their genes or their early environment, we can move away from the "rescue-blame trap" and toward a society that prioritizes rehabilitation and connection. As Harden notes, it is a miracle that we ever meet at all, diverse and flawed as we are. Our greatest challenge is to build a culture that honors the inherent value of every human, regardless of the hand they were dealt in the genetic lottery.